Classifications of Snakes and Reptiles

Classifications of Snakes and ReptilesReptiles atomic number 18 virtu all in ally of the oldest living creatures on the planet and made their first appearance some(prenominal) 300 cardinal years ago. It is studyd that the first species of ophidians contained limbs which became more and more reduced with great periods of time, this phenomenon corporation be assimilaten as a clear index number fair(a) how evolution took place within a group of electric organisms. Today vestigial bodily structures carry on in certain serpent families such(prenominal) as family Pythonidae and Boidae, and are remnants of structures they erst tour possessed. Spurs which find in the posterior position opposite the cloacae in Boas and Pythons is a clear manikin of vestigial structures that formed by time.Snakes are carnivorous reptiles that belong to the order Squamata (Lepidosuaria), which is regarded the roughly strategic assemblage, as far as ophidians are concerned. Squamates is a really diverse group of poikil separatemic (organisms that rely on their external environment to admit the energy needed to facilitate metabolic and new(prenominal) fulfilles crucial for life), amniote vertebrates which contain the distinct characteristic of universe elongated and covered in overlapping scales. Squamata is subdivided into three distinct suborders Ophidia or Serpentes, containing snakes, Sauria containing lizards and Amphisbaenia containing worm- lizards.The suborder Ophidia contains 15 families which are subdivided into 456 gen term that make up of more than 2900 species. Snakes engage one of the widest disseminational ranges in the animal kingdom, covering the entirely planet except Antarctica (Figure 1.1). In South Africa alone in that location occurs 166 species and slipstream of snakes, 101 of these species open en large-mouthedd fangs to deliver spitefulness of which plainly 15 are regarded as actually dangerous and potentially flumpal to man. This means that of all our snake species all 8.5% are classified as dangerous, where administration of antivenin is deemed necessary. The last outder of venomous species is of no medical importance to man, in fact in some species the toxicity of their venom is less(prenominal) than that found in bees and wasps.There are a few morphological characteristics of Ophidia which distinguishes them from the other two suborders e.g. the insufficiency of eyelids, external ears, the lack of limbs and the occurrence of a single row of ventral scales, whereas lizards and amphisbaenas differ in the smell that they have various patterns of scales that do not occur in specific rows. Amphisbaenians scale formation is atypical in the sense that scales are arranged in rows around the organic structure of the animal and then purportedly mimicking the resemblance of an earthworm. The skulls of Serpents are very unique in the sense that their upper yack off-whites arent united/interconnected a t snout of the animal, this enables the two jaw prinks to act separate form one another and enables the snake to swallow large give items. In contrary to popular belief snakes can however not dislocate or unhinge their jaws to swallow large prey items, the two upper jaws are simply connected to each other through connective tissue which is highly elastic and serves as the binding factor between the jaws.Snakes fulfill a crucial role/ do work in nature and can be seen as an integral aspect of our environment both as key predators and as prey. They assist in regulating gnawer numbers and are ingenuous indicators of the natural balance of the environment (bio-indicators). In addition to this, research and development is cosmos done on the properties of venom in the medical field. Research is beingness conducted on the applications of venom in fields such as high blood pressure, mental disorders and diseases of the central nervous governance to mention but a few. Such is the compl exity of venom that further studies, beneficial to man, are essential. It is there for imperative that we conserve our snakes not only for the preservation of our environment, but also for the wellbeing of mankind.Evolution that took place within the Class ReptiliaReptiles evolved from prehistoric amphibians cal discipline Labrynthodonts (Flank, 1997), and according to paleontologists made their first appearance in the Pennsylvanian era some 300 million years ago. They were also the first vertebrates to escape dependency on water. The earliest forms of reptiles suggested a mixture of both amphibian and reptilian characteristics, and diversified greatly over the next 200 million years. Reptiles were the dominant animal group on earth during the Mesozoic period, and were represented by 15 major groups. Only 4 of these orders survive today. Extinct are the fishlike Ichtyosaurus, sail-backed Pelycosaurs, flying Pterosaurs, Mosasaurs, plesiosaurs, well-known dinosaurs like Brachiosaurs and many others. The dinosaurs included the largest animals ever to walk on earth-the Sauropods, some of them reaching lengths of nearly 27 meters long. Many of the less familiar dinosaurs were no drawn-out than chickens. (Carr,1963)Several basic advances made possible the rise and wide distribution of reptiles on land. Most important was the amniote egg, with its tough outer covering and protective membranes, and a cornified fell that protected the animals from drying out. The positioning of the limbs also made it possible for reptiles to impact more easily on land, and an improved circulatory trunk ensured that oxygen rich blood reached the animals.In their Mesozoic heyday, Reptiles dominated the land, seas and air, and the reason for their dramatic drop during this period is still not clear, although there are some speculation by biologists that the decline was probably caused by a meteor shower which alter a dramatic change in climate and giving rise to the so called Ice Age. Warm blooded vertebrates (Birds and Mammals) began to expand by the end of the Mesozoic period. By the time the Cenozoic period arose only 4 orders of reptiles still existed, and these same quad have persisted to this day. The order Rhynchocephalia is represented by only one species, the lizzardlike, granular scaled Tuatara (Sphenodon punctatus) confined to New Zealand where its survival is now threatened. The remaining 3 orders have representatives throughout the world. The order Testudines (turtles) is the most ancient, appearing about 250 million years ago and remaining virtually unchanged for the past 200 million years. The order Crocodylia (crocodilians) is slightly less ancient and is traceable to the Permian thecodonts. The order Squamata refers to scaled reptiles that include lizards, amphisbaenids and snakes. This is the most recent order and was not viridity until the late cretaceous multiplication about 65 million years ago.In order to classify snakes or other orga nisms it is necessary to understand the origin and evolution of the species and place them into specific genera and families (Figure 1.2)Scientists believe that modern day snakes evolved from the family Varanidae, a group of lizards that belong to the genus Veranus. The fossils of Lapparentophis defrennei (Figure 1.3) was found in North Africa as we know it today, and it represents the earliest member of the suborder Ophidia. This species however shows no luff link between earlier snake like reptiles, and its origin continues to boggle biologists. Lapparentophis defrennei appeared on the earth around 100 million years ago during the cretaceous period and were around for about 35 million years, were after it got extinct by the end of the Cretaceous period. Boidae was one of the seven families of snakes that arose after the Cretaceous period and was at its peak of speciation during this time. Colubridae in modern day times is the family that contains the largest amount of dissimilar snake species, and first emerged some 36 million years ago during the late Eocene, and the beginning of the Oligocene period. During this time Colubrids started to diversify at an immense rate and eventually gave rise to more stark naked species during the Miocene period. This diversification led to the disappearance of some of the more primitive lineages of snakes because they could no longer compete with the better adapted species that was starting to evolve. Viperidae (vipers, rattle snakes and adders) and Elapidae ( search fixed fang snakes for the most part cobras and mambas and their relatives) originated during the Miocene period and belongs to the infraorder Alethinophidia. The family Viperidae is by far the most advanced evolved species of snake in the world and contains highly specialized structures that enable them to be a very successful hunters e.g. heat- sensitive pits that developed on the upper labial and a b uprightly colored tail tip that occur in Agkistrodon sp . This is just one example of how specialized this family of serpents is to survive.Distinguising features of the suborder OphidiaAll snakes are elongated, lack eyelids, external ears and osteoderms.Snakes poses a forked mother tongue which can be resile into a sheath (Figure 2.1)All have along backbone. (Some have in excess of 400 vertebrae), with many articulated ribs used predominantly for change of location and maintaining body shape.The swallow jaw is not fused, which allows the snake to engulf large items. They do however not dislocate their jaw.Prey is subdued either by constriction or by the injection of venom. In the case of venomous snakes small prey items are bitten and held in the mouth until paralysis or death occurs, whereas large prey items are bitten and released to ensure that damage do not occur to the snake.The majority of species have only the right lung but more primitive species such as Pythonidae and Boidae also contains a rudimentary left lung.Unlike liza rds the tail cannot be regenerated.All snakes shed their discase.All snakes pack from eggs, some are Oviparous (eggs trump up outside the distaffs body), and some are ovoviviparous (eggs hatch inside the mothers body thus giving birth to live small).Classification of snakescommonwealth AnimaliaPhylum ChordataSubphylum VertebrataClass ReptiliaOrder SquamataSuborder Ophidia (Serpentes)Infraorders -Alethinophidia-ScolecophidiaThe classification of snakes are based on different morphological structuresThe frequent morphology of snakes is a crucial factor used in their Taxonomy. Factors such as the arrangement of bones in the skull and other parts of the skeleton, especially the charge or absence of a pelvic girdle are used to distinguish between separate and subspecies of snakes. The hypapohyses (vertebrae with downward pointing spike like projections), the coronoid bone (a small bone that occur in the lower jaw), structures of the hemipenes (Figure 2.2, Jadin, 2000) and microsco pic and biochemical material such as chromosome arrangement and protein analyses are also used in classification of snakes.The presence or absence hypapohyses, especially in the lumbar region of the spine, is used as one of many diagnostic characters when classifying snakes. The hypapohyses is very magnanimous in the genus Dasypeltis which use them too saw trough egg shells. There occurs much variation in the shape and size of the coronoid bone. It is particularly large in primitive snakes such as Typhlopidae, Leptotyphlopidae and Anomalepididae. The coronoid bone is very small or absent al unneurotic in advanced snake species. A hemipenis is the sex organ of male Squamates. Male snakes has two hemipenes probably for the reason that when one is damaged or injured, it still left with a spare one which can remain to work and carry out its familiar function during copulation. This ensures that the males genes dont specify lost and can still be carried over through copulation with fe males. Hemipenes, under normal conditions are used in an alternating fashion when copulation occurs with female individuals. Sperm is carried through the sulcus spermaticus (which is the line running through the middle of a males hmipenis) to the female during copulation. By examining the tail of an individual we are able to distinguish its sex. Males normally have a long tail which contains prominent bulges of where the hemipenes are situated and females usually have very short tails without the occurrence of any prominent bulges. The shapes of hemipenes differ greatly from species to species and contain different cranial structures thus forming a very important method for taxonomists to classify snakes into different species and subspecies. Relationships that occur between different species of Squamates as a result of evolution is best explained through the examination hemipenal characteristics of the different species. The function of the spines and ridges that occurs on hemipene s of different species of male snakes, serves as an adaption to ensure that copulation lasts long enough for egg fertilization to occur.BiologyHearing and VisionSnakes cannot en fantasy airborne sounds due to the fact that they do not posses external ears. Snakes do however have an auditory nerve enabling them to hear sounds travelling through a dense medium. They are extremely sensitive to vibrations and can thus detect someone or something approaching them. For this reason people seldom see snakes whilst walking in the bush, the snake senses the vibrations created by footsteps and beats a hasty retreat for cover. There is however snakes that do not retreat when approached and this is a direct result of the morphological attributes they contain. Bitis arietans, Bitis atropos and, Bitis gabonica, are species of snakes that rather rely on their camouflage to conceal them from potential predators and dangers than to move away, and it is not surprise to find out that Bitis arietans is responsible for 60% of all snake bites in Southern Africa. Contrary to popular believe snakes do have good vision. How else would they safely navigate through the bush except of course via smell? Their vision however is used mainly for detecting movement. Most snakes have monocular vision (unable to distinguish depth of field) whilst some snakes have binocular vision (able to distinguish depth of field) e.g. Thelotornis capensis and Dispholidus typus. Snakes do not have movable eyelids, quite they possess a fixed transparent defense which covers the eye and is shed during sloughing.Sense of smellFor this function the snake uses its tongue. The tongue is flickered picking up minute airborne particles which when retracted back into the mouth is deposited onto organs situated in the roof of the mouth. These organs are known as the organs of Jacobson. Studies have shown that snakes enjoys a similar sense of smell as we do, the epithelium of the organs of Jacobson works in exactly th e same way as the olfactory epithelium we as humans possess. The tongue is forked so that the snake can detect the differences in strength of smell and thus enabling it to locate its prey very accurately. Snakes diet consists of quite an a few prey items such as rats, mice, small mammals, birds, frogs, toads, insects, lizards, fish, small antelope, eggs and other snakes, which is swallowed whole usually head first.SheddingShedding of scrape up depends primarily on the growth rate. Juveniles for example shed their skin more often than adults for the simple reason that they are growing faster. Juveniles may shed their skin as often as twelve times a year whereas an adult may only shed its skin three to four times a year. During this process the entire skin is shed from the tip of the snout through to the tail including the eye shields. During this time the snakes eyes become opaque, restricting the snakes vision and therefore making the snake not only more vulnerable, but also more aggressive. A snake may often go into screen during this period. You may also find snakes basking for longer periods prior to shedding, the reason being higher temperature speeds up the development of new skin, thus reducing the vulnerability period. refrigerant Blooded (Ectothermic) and HibernationAll members of the order Squamata are so called cold blooded (exothermic) organisms. This simply means that unlike mammals and birds which generate heat internally (endothermic), reptiles obtain their heat externally, usually from the sun. All reptiles will bask in the sun absorbing heat from their environment until their bodies reach the correct optimal temperature ( 30C) which allows them to function at their maximum potential. The advantage of ectothermy is that it is fuel efficient. Mammals on the other hand convert 90% of what they eat into heat in order to maintain biochemical and muscle efficiency which allows mammals the opportunity to function at colder temperatures. This metho d demands a constant intake of food. Reptiles however become temporarily dormant at colder temperatures and thus waste no energy. A snake can survive and grow on ten to fifteen meals a year. Reptiles will go into hibernation when their optimal body temperature cannot be achieved from the environment. In areas where there is a significant fluctuation in temperature snakes will go into hibernation. The correct term used is topor. Areas such as the lowveld where there is no significant temperature variations will see reptiles not going into true hibernation but rather into a state of burmation. During hibernation snakes live off the body fat accumulated during the warm periods of the summer, and will exhibit very little signs of activity, thus becoming sluggish. A snake will use anything that will offer it protective covering against the elements and predation. Sites which are used by Squamates during the winter or cold times of the year for hibernation include deserted termite mounds, hollow logs and rock crevices.Reproductionsexually active males will approach any snake they come across. The reaction of the approached snake will catch how the encounter develops. If the approached snake is a male and reacts aggressively it may give rise to a battle between the two parties. Battles vary according to species, Vipers and Elapids generally engage in a form of ritualistic wrestling, but refrain themselves from biting each other. Colubrids however react violently and bite each other severely. In some species of snakes some(prenominal) males group together amicably and follow a receptive female. Should there be no reaction from the approached snake the sexually active male uses its Vermonasal organ to chemically determine the species and sex of the snake it has approached. It does so with the use of its tongue interpreting the pheromones emitting from the other snake. Should it be of a different species, the male then seeks out a new mate.All reptiles have internal fertilization. The male places his head on the back of the female and winds his tail around the females and attempts to join their cloacas together. This is seldom achieved at the first attempt. It sometimes takes hours, even days, for successful copulation to take place. The sexual organs of the male consist of two penises, referred to as the hemipenes. Each hemipene is equipped with flexible spines which inflate once penetration has occurred making it difficult for the male and female snakes to become dislodged. Sperm is transferred to the female via a single penis in Crocodilians and Chelonians, and paired penises in lizards and snakes (although only one penis is used at a time). Once marriage has taken place the male will often stay with the female for a few days to mate again.Fertilization of the ovule and spermatozoid takes place high in the oviduct, then the egg gradually moves down into the oviduct where the uterine glands eject a substance which surrounds the egg. The len gth of the embryonic development depends on the species and also within the species depending on climate (temperature), and ranges from 2-5 months.As stated before all snakes hatch from eggs. The method of incubation however does differ between some species. The majority of snakes lay eggs andleave them to be incubated externally (oviviparous) with no parental care whatsoever. Species such as Python natalensis coils around their eggs throughout incubation. This not only protects the eggs but also regulates the temperature to help assist with incubation. In other species such as Hemachatus haemachatus the female retains the eggs inside her body to produce fully developed live young (viviparous).Between four to eight weeks after mating the female selects a suitable site to deposit her eggs. The site chosen is usually a suitably protected place in the form of rotting vegetation, hollow tree trunks or any other suitable location. The number of eggs deposited depends on a variety of cir cumstances for example, species, size of the female, habitat (availability of food), age and climate. Eggs move vary between one and two to as many as 60, sometimes more, depending on factors mentioned above. Eggs usually have soft leathery shells which require a specific amount of heat and humidity in order to ensure that hatch. Once the eggs have been laid there is often no parental care with the exception of a few species. In South Africa the young of Python natalensis may stay with the female for several days after hatching, leaving the burrow by day and returning to the female at night.In most reptiles the sex of hatchlings is determined by temperature, for example outer eggs (cooler) will be female while the inner eggs (warmer) within the nest will be male. The eggs usually hatch between one to three months after the female has deposited them. In the case of some species of chameleons eggs might take up to a year to hatch. The young are equipped with an egg tooth consisting o f a sharp ridge on the tip of the snout which allows the young to cock open the eggshell thus liberation itself. The young that emerges are exact replicas of the adults, and the hatchlings of venomous snakes are equipped with fully functional venom glands and fangs, and are thus venomous directly from birth.Egg deathrate is quite high. Reasons for egg mortality range from predation to unsuitable nest sites chosen. Giving birth to live young may be an evolutionary process to assure the success of a species, reducing the risk of egg mortality in particularly cold areas where the temperatures wont be adequate enough for incubation. operation (Locomotion Speed)The ability to function at speed and endurance is directly related to the supply and amount of oxygenated blood to the body. Reptiles, unlike mammals and birds, do not receive as good supply of oxygenated blood. Directly translated, this means that reptiles tire more easily and are incapable of endurance. Based on these facts i t is doubtful that the speed of a snake would exceed 20km/h which is much slower than the average human. The two fastest snake species world occur in Southern Africa and belongs to the genus Psammophis and Dendroaspis.There are four basic modes of locomotion in snakesSepentine This is the more familiar method of locomotion that most snakes use e.g. the family Elapidae which makes use of this method. The body undulates from side to side while the hind part of the snake makes contact with the surface and the rest of the body is pushed in the direction the snake wishes to go.Caterpillar These are usually heavy corporal snakes e.g. Bitis arietans. The snake progresses in a primarily straight line using its ventral scales to propel it forward.Concertina This is when a part of the body is anchored whilst get-up-and-go forward. The snake may anchor its head and then drags the rest of the body towards the head. This is often seen in arboreal species when negotiating between smooth brac hes of trees. Snakes that make use of this flake of locomotion usually contain the characteristic of keeled ventral scales, and include species of the genus Philothamnus.Sidewinding This method is most seen in desert species. It is the most effective method of locomotion on loose unstable surfaces such as sand. Only one or two sections of the body are in contact with the surface at any given time. A section of the body is thrown sideways and is followed by the next section. This way of locomotion can be seen as a specific adaption for desert species e.g. Bitis peringueyi, to ensure that they dont get burned by the hot desert sand when moving.ScalesMost people refer to snakes as being wet or slimy, which is quite the contrary. In fact if you touch a snake you will notice that it is in fact dry. Scales are horny skin that originates from the snakes epidermis. The primary function of scales is to prevent rapid water loss, an evolutionary process which has allowed snakes to move onto land. Scales can be smooth or keeled. Some snakes use their scales as a warning mechanism. By rubbing them together this creates a rasping sound that serves as a warning to would be predators. Dasypeltis scabra is a species of snake that occur in Southern Africa and which use this specific defensive mechanism to ward of predators. The North American rattlesnakes rattle is also an example of modified scales that formed through evolution. Scales also help in the locomotion of snakes.Scale counts remain one of the main methods in the identification and classification between different species of snakes. There are four methods which can be used to correctly identify a species via scale countsHead scales This is done by counting the upper and lower labials on each side, taking handbill of which scales are in contact with the eye. Examine the nasal scales (single, semi-divided or fully divided). Count the number of preocular and postocular scales and check whether a loreal shield is pre sent. There should also be taken note of the arrangements of scales that occur on the temples, and the presence of any fused scales. Observe the relative sizes of internasals, prefrontals, frontal and parietals, and also note the proportions and shape of the rostral scales at the front of the nose.Dorsal scales Note whether the scales are smooth or keeled. And one head length away from head and in front of the cloacaSubcaudal scales The first scale is the single or paired scale that meets the lateral scales on both sides. Count back along the tail towards the conelike tip. Note whether scales or anal shields are single or divided as this forms a crucial part of the identification between different families of snakes. intrinsic Anatomy of SnakesA snakes skull is specifically designed to suit their specialized feed habits. Because a snake cannot chew its food and must swallow it whole it is important that the snake be able to open its mouth very wide. For this reason the fifty odd bones in the skull are not fused together, instead they are loosely connected to each other by ligaments which allows the snake to produce an enlarged gape allowing it to swallow prey much larger than its head. The design is similar to an elastic band. Often after a snake has eaten it will seem to yawn, this is done simply to relax the ligaments and bones t their original shape. The structure of a snakes brain is very similar to that of a bird, but unlike birds and mammals snakes lack the enlarged cerebral hemispheres. In mammals (and birds) the cerebral is the part of the brain, which acts as the teaching center of the organism. For this reason, although snakes are perfectly adapted to the environment, it is correct to say that snakes are not very intelligent. To allow snakes to engulf such large prey whole the stomach has to be very strong and elastic allowing it to expand greatly once prey is engulfed. Powerful digestive juices allow the snake to digest bone and teeth.Because a snake is for the most part long and cylindrical, the shape of the lung must be somewhat different in order to fit inside the snakes body. The right lung is usually the largest and extends for 1/3 of snakes body length. The left lung, in most cases is absent, or very small. Snakes have in effect only one lung. During feeding the snake is able to extend a muscular extension of its windpipe (epiglottis) from the bottom of its mouth allowing it to breathe while prey is being consumed.Most reptiles have a primitive three chambered heart which is not as effective as the four chambered heart found in crocodiles (and mammals). In snakes oxygen depleted blood gets pumped into one of the top chambers while oxygenated blood gets pumped into the other top chamber, both chambers get emptied into the bottom chamber and then circulated through the body. This is the main reason why snakes tire easily. In proportion to their body size snakes have very large kidneys. The left kidney is situated beh ind the right kidney in the abdominal region. The function of the kidney is to filter the waste products from the bloodstream and pass them on to the cloaca for excretion. Unlike mammals which wipe out nitrogen waste in the form of water soluble urea, snakes excrete these body wastes as crystals which forms a dry white paste which is excreted along with the feaces. This allows reptiles to be extremely efficient in their use of water. Mammals have a separate urinary, reproductive and anal opening. Snakes however do not. Instead they have a common chamber known as the cloaca which performs all these rudimentary functions. Waste material is stored in the cloaca until eliminated. The claoca opens to the outside through a transverse slit at the base of the tail. It is often possible to tell the difference in sexes between species by looking at the length from the cloaca to the tip of the tail. The longer the distance between these points would signify the snake as being male whereas a s hort distance between these points would indicate the snake as being female. The reason behind this is that during reproduction, as mentioned earlier, the male wraps his tail around the females. Some snakes, like the Pythonidae family, have special glands which also empty into the cloaca, these glands contain a foul musky scent which can be ejected when a snake is threatened, frightened or stressed.VenomThere is no easy describing venom. Simply put, snake venom is highly modified saliva which is produced by modified saliva glands. Venom is a combination of different enzymes, or proteins, that act on other chemicals and proteins thus altering them or simply breaking them down. Many of these proteins are harmless, but some are toxins. The makeup of these toxins varies widely from species to species. Snakes venom can therefore be best described as a cocktail of hundreds of different proteins and enzymes, this complexity alone accounts for widely differing effects of snakebite. In essen ce venom affects the protein and chemicals of the immune system and the blood, transported through the body via the lymphatic system. The venom glands are situated in the skull slightly behind the eyes.In order for venom to be effective it has to be injected into the circulatory system. It is therefore quite safe for a normal healthy person to drink venom without any consequences. Venom cannot be compared to poison, and are completely different entities.Venom has to be injected (circulatory system)Poison has to be ingested (swallowed)The functions of venom are numerousPrevents the putrification of prey prior to ingestion.Immobilizes prey thus preventing the snake from being injured.digestive properties within the venom begin the digestive process prior to ingestion.Snake venom is also antibacterial, antiviral, antifungal and antiprotozoal which protects the snake from microbial diseases which it may convey from prey.As a last resort, self defense when the snake is threatened.There are three types of snake venomNeurotoxic nerve acting venom (Elapidae).Cytotoxic cel destroying venom (Viperidae.)Haemotoxic blood acting venom (Colubridae).Fangs (Dentition)All snakes have teeth, but not all snakes have fangs. Most snakes have teeth on the upper and lower

An aseptic technique

An aseptic techniqueIntroductionAseptic means to be free from microorganisms. Aseptic Technique is the procedure that is performed under sterile condition to pr counterbalancet the growth of divergently microorganisms on the growth medium such as the Petri dishes containing the nutrient agar or the pure nicety. If the growth medium or the pure culture is contaminated with microorganisms from the environment, it volition results in confusion and in unblemished data. Hence, it is measurable to reduce the risks of these microorganisms to come in contact with the experimental materials.In addition, by maintaining a clean environment when transferring the culture of microorganism onto the nutrient agar is ploughsh atomic issuance 18 of the aseptic technique. This is usu whollyy d i by disinfecting the table before and after working with microorganism utilize alcohol. Flaming the experimental materials such as bacteriologic loops, bottle or flask necks screwing help in sterili zing. It must be d bingle for several seconds so as to raise the temperature to kill the contaminants however, the bacteriologic loop must be cooled for a while before it is used to pick up the microorganism as picking up microorganism with a hot marionette will kill the stalls. When removing caps from bottles, it is important to keep the cap in the hand as by putting them on the table, it will be contaminated. Flaming is also required before replacing the cap onto the bottle. It is important to handle open tubes at an angle so that airborne and an an other(a)(prenominal)(prenominal) microorganisms will not fall into the tube and cause contamination. During streaking, it is important to keep the lids of the Petri dish over it to prevent contamination. Lastly, try to avoid breathing, coughing, sneezing and talking while transferring the culture so as to reduce the risk on contaminating.Apart from this general aseptic technique, there also several other methods to ensure that dest ruction of breathing microorganisms in materials and apparatus. One of the methods is by using dry heat which is sterilising using in the buff flame or hot air. Sterilising materials or apparatus by a naked flame is usually heated to redness and allowed to cool. They ar usually made of metal. Exposure to hot air helps to destroy microorganisms in glass and porcelain apparatus.The other method is sterilizing using moist heat which sack be used in three different ways which are heat up in water supply or steam at 100oC, heating in steam under pressure and discontinue heating at low temperature. The different ways are employed according to the different materials or apparatus used.The last method is by using chemical, it can be either in liquid or gaseous state. They are often used in the disposal of contaminated materials and apparatus after a laboratory session.Microorganisms worked with in a lab should not be released into the environment as these strains may contain genetic markers such as antibiotic resistance. Therefore, they must be discarded properly.In addition, aseptic technique is not only applied in laboratory, it is also applied in clinical and surgical setting.AimsThere are two rails in this experiment. The first aim is to show that a large(p) keep down of microorganisms exist on the appear of our hands. The second aim is carry out the aseptic technique properly by transferring pure culture and inoculating them onto an agar plate.Materials and MethodsBacteria on skinPlease come to to the Laboratory Manual unless otherwise stated of changes made.Streak scurfPlease refer to the Laboratory Manual unless otherwise stated of changes made.A disposable sterile bacteriological loop is use instead of the metal sterile bacteriological loop so no heating is required.DiscussionBacteria on skinThe human skins surface do carry a large number of microorganism and that by washing hands, individual can reduce the number of microorganism noticeably. Howev er, even after a hand wash, microorganisms are salve present on the surface.Streak PlateBy employing the streaking technique on an agar plate correctly, a single colony can be obtained. Furthermore, it can be used to separate colonies of mixed culture. Hence, this pure colony can be picked up and to be grown in large quantity. From the result above, it can be observed that single colonies of the S.aureus are found. Due to the comment and morphology, it can be noted that the S.aureus is of a pure culture.ConclusionAseptic technique is a basic laboratory technique that must be employed especially during Microbiology laboratory session so as to prevent any contamination and bear upon the accuracy of the result. Since microorganism can replicated rapidly, disposal of contaminants must be done properly so as to protect both the equipments and the health of individuals.B- gee catchingIntroduction thou stain is also cognize as differential stain in which it will divide bacteria into two large classifys, chiefly Gram Positive and Gram blackball. This difference is due to the chemical and physical structure of the electric electric cell wall called peptidoglycan. During solvent treatment, if the peptidoglycan is able to retain the crystal majestic dye, the bacteria will be group as Gram Positive bacteria. However, if it is not able to retain the crystal violet, the bacteria will be group as Gram Negative bacteria and that it will be stained pink.Gram Positive bacteria has a thicker peptidoglycan (50-90% cell wall) as compared to the Gram Negative bacteria (10% cell wall). In addition, the Gram Negative bacteria has another layer which is make up of liposaccharides and proteins and is separated from the cell wall by the periplasm.In gram staining, there are four basic steps which include flooding the heat fixed smear with crystal violet stain, following by the addition of iodine solution to form complex, adding of alcohol for decolourisation and counterstainin g with safranin.After flooding the peptidoglycan with crystal violet stain, the dye will enter the cells and all cells will deal purple. With the addition of iodine, a crystal violet-iodine complex will be form such that it will not be able to exit the cells easily. By decolourizing the cell with alcohol, the peptidoglycan of the Gram Negative bacteria will break down because the alcohol will dissolves the liposaccharides layer and hence, with the removal of the layer, the crystal violet-iodine complex will run take away which will results in the loss of the crystal violet stain and the cells turn colourless. On the other hand, the alcohol will dehydrate the Gram Positive bacterias peptidoglycan, close the pores as the peptidoglycan shrinks. As a result, the crystal violet-iodine complex will not be able to run off as the exits will be block and they remained stained. By counterstaining with safranin, the Gram Negative cell will turn pink and the Gram Positive cells will remain violet. With gram staining, one is able to signalize if the culture is a pure or a mixed, the morphological details of the bacteria and the arrangement of the bacteria.AimsThe aim is to prepare smears for staining, observe the morphological details of the bacteria and to be able to differentiate between Gram Positive and Gram Negative bacteria.Materials and MethodsPreparation of Smears for stainingPlease refer to the Laboratory Manual unless otherwise stated of changes made.A disposable sterile bacteriological loop is use instead of the metal sterile bacteriological loop so no heating is required.Gram Staining MethodPlease refer to the Laboratory Manual unless otherwise stated of changes made.DiscussionAccording to the result observed, Bacillus subtilis is rod regulate ( atomic number 5). They are stained purple which suggests that they are Gram Positive bacteria. They are arranged in singles. Although, endospore cannot be observe in this experiment, they can also be found on Baci llus subtilis. The endospore enables the bacteria to tolerate harsh environmental condition such as high temperature. Bacillus subtilis can also be known as a single bacillus bacterium.Escherichia coli is stained pink and thereby, it is a Gram Negative bacterium. The cells are also rod shaped and they do not have any particular cell arrangement. They are found in singles, pairs and even clusters.Proteus vulgaris is also stained pink and hence, a Gram Negative bacterium. Its morphology rod shaped and is arranged in singles. They can also be known as a single bacillus bacterium.Staphylococcus aureus is a Gram Positive bacterium as it is stained dark purple after gram staining. It has a spherical shaped, otherwise known cocci and they are usually arranged in grape-like clusters. Therefore, they are known as a staphylococci bacterium. There were no differences in the shape and colour observed for for each one of the bacteria, hence, they can be known as a pure culture.ConclusionThe Gr am staining method is a useful tool used in most laboratories as it helps individual to visualise the bacteria accurately and effectively such as the shape, arrangement and even whether the culture is a pure or mixed.However, it should be noted that not all bacteria will give a gram reaction as some of them are gram variable, otherwise known as gram indeterminate. Therefore, they will give a mix of pink and purple cells after gram staining. For some of the Gram Positive bacteria, their peptidoglycan breaks easily during cell division, hence, after staining, they will give pink cells instead of purple. In addition, the duration of a culture can also call for the gram stain.C- Cell numberIntroductionCells enumerate is the accurate and precise counting of cells. They are usually carried out manually or electronically. By counting cells manually, a counting house, otherwise known as the haemocytometer is used. The counting chamber is used to determine the number of cells per unit vo lume of a suspension. On the other hand, a coulter counter is used to count cells electronically.There are two approaches to count the number of cells, mainly total cell counts and the viable counts. congeries cell counts are counted directly using the microscope and that both living and dead cells are counted. This is normally accompanied by the use of the counting chamber or coulter counter. Another approach is the viable counts which only count the living cells. The small volume of culture, otherwise known as the dilution of the culture is applied to the surface of an agar plate. After incubating, the colonies are counted, normally colonies between 30-300 are chosen to be used for the calculation of concentration of the given sample. The units given is colony forming units (CFU) per ml. The haemocytometer is a modified glass slides with two count chamber of known area. Each chamber grid is composed of nine squares which are known as subgrid, each square is 1mm2. Within each larg e square, there are further sub divisions that help in counting. When the coverslip is placed over the grooves of the slide, there will be a thickness of 0.1mm. Hence, the volume is 0.1mm3 or 1 x 10-4ml. Therefore, the cell concentration will be faced as the number of cells multiply by 1 x 104ml and again, multiplying the dilution factor.Since cells are very small and they can be observed in a very high number, the suspensions should be diluted full so that the cells are able to distribute uniformly in the counting chamber.AimsThere are two aims in this experiment. Firstly, to be able to determine the cell count in different biological species and secondly, to be able to determine the viable count of a live bacteria, Staphylococcus aureus.Materials and MethodsCell Counting using Counting ChamberPlease refer to the Laboratory Manual unless otherwise stated of changes made.Serial Dilution is carried out before the sample is loaded into the Neubauer Manual Counting Chamber. Normal sa line (0.9% NaCl) is used to dilute the blood and broth medium is used to dilute the brewers yeast ( Saccharomyces cervisiae). Both blood and brewers yeast are dilute in the ratio of 110 and 1100. The 110 dilution is prepared by diluting the 10L of whole blood or yeast with 90L normal saline or broth medium several(prenominal)ly. The 1100 dilution is prepared by extracting 10L from the respective sample from 110 and adding 90L of normal saline and yeast into the respective sample. Cell Counting of Live Bacteria, S. aureus (after Serial Dilution)Please refer to the Laboratory Manual unless otherwise stated of changes made.Two changes were made in Step 1 and Step 12 respectively.Only three nutrient agar plates , 10-3, 10-4 and 10-5 were labelled and culture in these dilutions were spread on the respective agar plates. A new spreader and pipette tip were used everything a different dilution culture was spread on the agar plate. Count the number of colonies on the three different agar p lates. Choose the agar plate with colonies between 30-300 to calculate the concentration of the original sample.DiscussionUsing the counter chamber, individual is able to give a quick assessment on the number of cells given that all the procedure on preparing and loading the sample onto it. One of it is that suspension/sample is not mixed before loading. This is due to the fact that cells tend to settle at the bottom of the tube and hence, while pipetting the sample out from the tube, individual do not have the actual or accurate number of cells. Therefore, to get a uniform suspension for a more accurate result, mixing the tube before pipetting is recommended. In addition, it can also help in reducing the clumping of cells.Furthermore, out-of-the-way filling of chambers can lead to inaccurate volume of suspension in the chamber and leading to inaccurate cell concentration. Improper filling of chamber includes overfilling or under filling of sample.Moreover, there must be a consiste ncy in counting cells which is in contact with the boundary lines (ie. the three lines just outside the grid) or when the cells are clump together. Individual will have to determine which cells to count and which not to count especially a cell which is locate on a border such as if a cell has half of its area outside the border, individual do not count those cells.The other method of cell counting is the viable count where a single cell will give rise to a colony which is visible to the naked eyes on the agar plate. Therefore, by counting the number of colonies on the agar plate, individual is able calculate the cell concentration. However, only plates which have 30 to 300 colonies are used to calculate the cell concentration.In the result for viable count of S.aureus, the plate chosen was 10-5 because there was 82 colonies in one quadrant which is equivalent to 328 (82 x 4) colonies on the agar plate. Although, the number of colonies (328) exceed the number of colonies of 300 tha t we were supposed to chose, this 10-5 dilution plate has the closest number to 300. However, we should dilute even further because a single colony can have clumps or chain of cells in it and hence, resulting in inaccurate number of colonies/cells in which the actual number of cells should actually be more than the calculated number of cells.The advantage of viable cell counting is that the organism counted will be a positive one (ie. S.aureus) instead of any other organism as if there is contaminant, the morphology or colour will be different.Another disadvantage of viable cell counting, other than cells that clump together or have chains which will form a single colony, is that organism will only grow in condition which is suitable for their growth on the agar plate.Cell counting usually is accompanied by serial dilution as it is impossible to count the number of cells if the concentration is too high as it will lead to a very high number of cells.ConclusionThere are several other methods, other than using counting chamber and viable cell count, to count cells in a suspension. However, they are the least expensive and is able to give accurate result in a very short period of time.ReferencesAbcam, 2009. Cell counts using a haemocytometer. Abcam plc. consultation http//www.abcam.com/index.html?pageconfig=resourcerid=11454Accessed 1 October 2009George Xu, 2007. History of the Gram Stain and How it Works. University of Pennsylvania.Source http//www.uphs.upenn.edu/bugdrug/antibiotic_manual/Gram1.htmAccessed 1 October 2009H. Kayser, A. Bienz, Johannes Eckert. M. Zinkernagel. 2005. Medical Microbiology. Thieme Stuttgart., New York. p. 264-270.Kenneth Todar, 2008. The Growth of Bacterial Population. Todars Online Textbook of Bacteriology.Source http//textbookofbacteriology.net/growth_2.htmlAccessed 6 October 2009Linda B, Mary R, 2007. Aseptic Transfer. Austin Community College.Source http//www.austincc.edu/microbugz/aseptic_technique.phpAccessed 3 October 2009Steve Hogg, 2008. The Gram Stain. Newcastle University.Source http//www.ncl.ac.uk/dental/oralbiol/oralenv/tutorials/gramstain.htmAccessed 6 October 2009

Problem Statement Of Telecom Technologies

Problem Statement Of Telecom TechnologiesThe history of telephony took birth in 1876 when Graham Bell succeeded in making first invariably voice transmission past we observed 1st public cellular phone in 1946 and the introduction of the very first commercial mobile meshwork in 1992. Weve been moving forward, making great discoveries all along, making innovations in different technologies, disciplines and life styles. 1992 was a start of the speech transmission now which stands as a perfect master piece of art and is ready to take a jump into the hyper connectivity. We take a leak jumped into a BW hungry population which have ensued in overturning the technologies and the mobile telephony is no exception to that. Infact data requirement now explicates major revenue pours in any modern mobile network, so we are always hunting for methods to heighten and step-up the data rates. From the infancy mobile networks in 1992 grew to a developed network into the 2nd Generation then 2.5th G eneration networks. Then we observed a transition from GSM engineering to UMTS or WCDMA. That was called as 3rd Generation Technology.1.2 Problem StatementProgression in telecom technologies has become an unavoidable phenomenon. Telecom markets are reshaping themselves into 3G networks. 3G UMTS/WCDMA licensing and spectrum auction saleing has happened in all the major markets including the developing economies similar to Pakistan. There are almost over 405 million UMTS/WCDMA subscribers in 320 networks in over 130 countries. This number is growing at an exponential pace as more and more networks embrace this engineering science.However, Pakistan has unfortunately delayed the 3G licensing and spectrum auction now for over 3 years and is lagging behind in offering broadband and other consumer oriented EM (electronic mobile) applications such as health, education, commerce, photograph conferencing over its mobile networks. While, the importance of 3G licensing is a key aspect fr om the consumer point of view but an untimely adoption by the operators could have resulted in less(prenominal) capex and opex today since most of the sites especially in the larger cities are for providing excess Voice Data capacity which could have been avoided by deployment of 3G networksWhile, some of the operators are tranquil resisting the 3G licensing but most of them have shown this resistance due to likely higher Spectrum Fee being envisaged by the Government for 3G. The Operators are of the view that the spectrum should be offered at cheaper tariff so that investment goes into infrastructure and not licensing. The other issue confronting the regulator and policy dissemblers is whether to open up the process to new players or border the auction to only the existing operators. To Identify and Analyse Impediments of 3rd Generation Telecommunication Technology to Develop Remedial Measures for its Early Deployment in Pakistan1.3 Objectives of ThesisTo reading Mobile Wirel ess TechnologiesTo Study and Analyze Market and Consumer Requirements for 3GTo Study and Analyze the current Telecommunication Policies, Rules and Regulations with regards to the adoption and implementation of TechnologiesTo identify Impediments (Issues and Challenges) in deployment 3G (Conclusions)To present Measures and Recomm leftoverations for early deployment of 3G in Pakistan1.4 Significance of investigateDue to consistent and unwavering growth patterns Pakistan Mobile Industry has achieved land mark of 100 million subscribers at the end of July 2010. In order to make the sector more efficient in utilizing the telecom resources, PTA has implemented the infrastructure sharing SOPs, which will not only make the operators more efficient but too would give them huge cost saving and reduce environmental hazards in the inelegant. The much wait 3G licensing is just just about the corner, where all the necessary work has been completed and the Authority is waiting for a policy by the Government of Pakistan to initiate the licensing process. In continuation to its efforts PTA has been arranging seminars on 3G for creating awareness about the 3G services and to foresee and discuss the challenges that the industry may face with the introduction of 3G services.3G is known as Third generation telecommunication technology as specified in the ITU standards. Unveiling of this technology has chipped in a new driving force to the mobile concepts. It now extends the user, a broad military of facilities. The most significant among them is the efficient use of the spectrum. Ameliorated efficiency in the system has bestowed upon the availability of broadband internet in the cellular phone. This remarkable invention has also made it possible to accomplish extended wireless telephony, broadband internet and video calls in the cell phone. Strictly speaking, the 3G technology has overturned the requirements to make it a complete, compact device by providing multifaceted app lications.Using internet on the 3G phone has established a new attribute to the all-pervasive internet usage. The 3G technology has successfully attained faster service facilities. Development of a website or making a blog is now simpler then ever before. Desktops, due to its static spirit have certain limitations. While mobile phone could accomplish the same result as its similitude, it was a good change for the consumers. Impact of this new technology in the cell phone sphere will be satisfying. Mobile phone industry is functioning in a superb competitive environment. By use of this technology, the user can browse internet and find an online dealer to purchase the products. Other fields that have profited from this technology are online entertainment, messaging, news and security.1.5 Limitations of the ResearchThough Officials of PTA were very accommodative and provided with the thorough and comprehensive information about upcoming 3G technology but all was an unofficial version moreover they were indecisive to provide with the definite PTA policy on the adoption of 3G.Due to rivalry and cutthroat competition among the Mobile Telecom Operators, access to their information regarding up measure or operational readiness of 3G infrastructure was somewhat inaccessible.1.6 Research Methodology1.6.1 Phase 1Initially Problem was identified, Despite having second highest teledensity, Pakistan is the only country left in the region to deploy 3G Technology1.6.2 Phase 2In the second phase it was compulsory to get to know about the 3G technology right from the scratch to learn its economics over the existing technologies. We studied the architecture of the mobile networks of all the technologies from 1G to 3G consulting the web (thanks to the web inventors), the published white paper and the Books on Wireless Technology.1.6.3 Phase 3In this phase we paid visits to PTA, FAB and the Mobile Operators, and were able to get unofficial version of their views regarding depl oyment of long awaited 3G technology in Pakistan. Moreover we pondered over the case studies of different countries who adopted 3G technology. Example in hand is India.1.6.4 Phase 4While studying the external trend towards 3G we made a compared the statistics of the market and consumers of Pakistan and more over had a look into the concerns of the regulatory body and the mobile operators.1.6.5 Phase 5We then analysed the place and came up with certain issues / concerns of the government, the mobile operators and the consumers. A solution representing remedial measures have been highlighted, following which will address the issues and create a roadmap for early adoption of 3G technology as there is lot of potential for the operators as well the government to earn fortune.1.7 Structure of the ThesisIntroduction (Chapter-1) In this chapter Introduction and Background along with significance of research, limitations and methodology has been highlighted.Literature Review (Chapter-2) In this chapter Mobile Wireless Technologies including 3G have been thoroughly deliberated upon with an over view on technologies beyond 3G.Analysis and Discussions (Chapter-3-6) In these chapters Consumer Market and Regulations have been dwelled upon to find out the impediments delaying the adoption of 3G in Pakistan.Epilogue (Chapter-7-8) In these chapters we have put across recommendations to the Government and the Operators to address the issues highlighted and pave a smooth way to adoption of the next generation telecommunication technology.

Teaching Status Report :: Teaching Education Essays

Teaching Status Report My experiences at Dunn middle school atomic number 18 quite different then I had origin altogethery anticipated. All of the research I did on the school itself and what I heard from others about their experiences prepared me for the worst. What I ended up with was a classroom full of yearning young students to learn. They may not be eager to learn the basics, math, science, history, etc. However, they are eager to find out new things. My job now is to make sure that I incorporate the basics into what they want to learn or vice versa. The students in my classroom each have a unique soulfulnessality, no two are even similar, but every one of them is interesting and has potential to be great learners and people. I was expecting to walk into a room full of out of control hoodlums. I expected there to be things thrown across the room, the boys all dressed in gang colors, and the girls dressed like Beyonce with stomachs hanging out. During my first few days of observation I learned that the students respected the teacher. This was very relieving because I knew that the students would quickly learn to respect me as a teacher and an adult. My cooperating teacher was very encouraging and has helped us to learn a lot about the classroom. He is a very strict teacher and puts up with no nonsense. However, he if you follow his rules he will ease up and allow some sliding. His direction style is very different then mine is. He likes to have the kids write on the board and teaches most of his classes from his seat in front of his desk. I dont know that this is the wrong way to teach, it is simple different then my personal style. I am a very energetic person and want to share my energy and passions with the students. I like to get up and walk around the class and get the kids excited about the lesson at hand. As far as discipline goes I really think that I can learn a great deal from my co-op.

Female Characters in William Shakespeares Othello Essay -- William Sh

Female Characters in William Shakespe atomic number 18s OthelloThroughout history, womens place and role in society has vastly changed, as well as their sexuality. In the Victorian era, it was considered abnormal for women to masturbate or feel pleasure from sexual intercourse with her husband. They were led to believe that they were sick, and thereof went to their doctor who would rid them of their feverishness through vaginal stimulation. The patriarchal society did not want women to know or rede their sexuality because that would give them power and control over their bodies. Additionally, in many African tribes, when a girl reaches womanhood, it is custom to mutilate her genitals in order to keep them chaste until they are married. During the Elizabethan era, women were considered second-class citizens. They lived in a society in which a woman was either a whore, or a good, angelic wife. The three female characters in Othello, Emilia, Desdemona, and Bianca, all falsify in their personalities and roles, yet they all percentage one common trait, in that they are all women living in a patriarchal society and thus by suffering together, their female bonds become stronger. Emilia is a very outspoken, strong, independent women who believes her husband Iago, to be a mischievous, deceitful, idiot. Although Iago treats Emilia rather badly, she still stands up to him. In Act 3, scene 3, Emilia has discovered Desdemonas handkerchief and brings it to Iago in which Iago call his wife foolish and a wench. Emilia stands up to Iago by defending Desdemonas keepsake by questioning Iago why he wanted her to steal it in the first place, and then finding out his wild intentions, What will you do witht, that you have been so earnest t... ...owever, after looking at Iagos unsmooth portrayal of Bianca, he clearly does not understand the situation Bianca is in, and thus Bianca shares the secret life of a female as does Desdemona and Emilia and therefore indir ectly, establishes the female bond. The women of Othello have different characteristics, yet all share one common bond. Desdemona is submissive, but loyal and true to the men in her life. Emilia thinks quite low of her husband and is a strong, smart, assertive woman. Bianca knows her place in society and was unfortunate to succumb to a life of prostitution. However, all these women share the same knowledge, which brings them together as females. They all live under a harsh patriarchal society that does not allow them to think and act freely and naturally as men do, even though unlike the men, they know they are of equal human qualities.

Jealousy in William Shakespeares Othello Essay -- William Shakespeare

green-eyed monster in William Shakespeares Othello In the meet Othello, jealousy and envy are prominent themes from the beginning to the end. As the play slowly unfolds it is evident that jealousy is the cause of most of the dramatic actions which take place in the duration of the play. It is described as the green - eyed monster. Green representing the colour of envy, and monster shows how unwholesome and how vicious it can be. This quotation is said by a tone named Iago. Iago has a strong manipulative mind. He is the first of all the characters in the play to be attacked by the green - eyed monster. This is very ironic, Iago is warning Othello to be aware of jealousy, however what Othello does not know is that Iago is the one that is building up the irritation within him. As the play opens we see that Iago is already feeling jealous as he says That never set a squadron in the field, nor the division of a battle knows this portrays Iagos bitterness a nd towards Cassio. The reason for this is, Cassio has just been promoted to lieutenant and Iago thinks that he is the wrong man for the job. Iago thinks that he deserved it more than Cassio. This quotation states that Cassio is not an experienced or practical soldier and should not have the job. However the main character that is affected by the venom of the green - eyed monster is the main character in the play, Othello. In Othellos situation, the poison of the jealousy grows slowly as the play proceeds. Unlike Iago whose jealousy fires up as soon as he hears virtually Cassios promotion. The jealousy that Othello experiences changes his whole character. Othello has a transformat... ...f the jealousy. In conclusion, it is fair to say that Iago did enmesh the characters in his net of jealousy and did so successfully. However, Iagos lies caught up to him, as in the end, Othello knew what he had done, as he strikes Iago. He used carefully structured sent ences to achieve this. Ha. I like not that is a very good example of this. It is opened that Iago is also capable of portraying what he wants in what ever character he pleases to do so in. he uses evidence that is not proper verification and makes it seem as real as reality. And example of this is the handkerchief. After noticing what jealousy is capable of, it is clear why Iago says that jealousy is a green - eyed monster. Jealousy did not only acquire dead bodies like Desdemona, but ruined the true love that Desdemona and Othello shared.

Essay --

Introduction As my utility group has chosen Royal Dutch Shell Public Limited Company, which is angiotensin converting enzyme of the worlds six major owned inunct and gas public organizations, for discussing its win-win strategy and corporate social responsibility (CSR) strategy, an online game, CEO2, will take pause in this report in battle array to build the best win-win strategy for the chosen company such as reducing carbon dioxide emission sequence raising the long term profitability. The biggest challenge in this industry is meeting consumer demand with acceptable ecological impacts and producing electricity at competitive prices. Moreover, Shell oil spill in 2011 has listed as the worst spill in the United Kingdom waters in the past decade. (Harvey, 2011) and caused stakeholders suspected its CSR strategy. Therefore, this report will snap the win-win strategy by using the game result and address the companys CSR issues in relation to its CSR strategy.CEO2 Game & Win-Win s trategyThe CEO2 games yield is based on two rounds, we selected the best three options based on the options provided in round one. Firstly, install new off-shore cut farms with decreasing 20 per centum CO2 emission, which adding up to 20 percent generation capacity and off-shore wind farms is better than the traditional on-shore wind farms due to more space available, higher wind speed and lesser complaints by the neighbors such as noise issue. Secondly, Cooperate with a grid operator which uses to equip every private and industry customer with a smart meter. For example, smart meters would help consumers better manage their energy use and reduce their energy bill. Thirdly, retrofit existing plants which allowed improving efficiency at all existing power plants by on average 4 perce... ... risk.(ADN news, 2011) However, Shell only informed the public that the organization had taken the incident badly with indicating regret and care, but not its emergency measure.Conclusion In conclusion, Shells CSR strategy is lack of equilibrium between environmental and economic performances which light-emitting diode to lose the trust of the public, therefore, Shells CSR needs to improve. For example, media and NGOs as watch dog and integrators to rebuild the trust with the public to ensure the company activities are environmentally, socially responsible and economically.Moreover, the organization could also increase its investment in technologies such as using cameras to control the oil transportation process in order to ensure the incident will not happen again. Overall, the company may add a win-win strategy to its CSR strategy to improve its current CSR performance.